Grammar

Grammar ---- Nouns

List of Nouns

Using a list of nouns when children are beginning to read is helpful in making teaching easier. Nouns are one of the first parts of speech that children learn when they begin to read. Use the following list of nouns for each age group to help your child learn about the ideas things, people and places that surround them.

Kinds of Nouns in the English Language

Nouns have different types or classes. There are proper and common nouns, noncount and count nounts, collective nouns, and concrete and abstract nouns.
Even though there are different kinds of nouns, a noun can fall into more than one class.
An example of this would be: Kathleen dated three different Davids in college. Davids in that sentence would fall into the classes of proper, count and concrete.
To further explain the kinds of nouns, you can use this guide and remember that the lists of nouns below contain all of these types :

KINDS OF NOUNS

Proper Nouns and Common Nouns

Proper nouns are nouns that represent a unique entity (like a specific person or a specific place).
Common nouns which describe an entire group of entities (examples would be the nouns village or women).
Proper nouns as a general rule are capitalized in the English language. Common nouns as a general rule are not capitalized.
Sometimes the same word can function as both a common noun and a proper noun, where one such entity is special. For example the common noun god refers to all deities, while the proper noun God specifically refers to the monotheistic God.

Countable and Uncountable or Noncount Nouns

Countable nouns are common nouns that can become a plural. They can combine with exact numbers (even one, as a singular) or indefinite numbers (like "a" or "an").
Uncountable (or noncount) nouns are different from by the simple fact that  they can't become plural or combine with number words. Examples from English include "indigestion" and "furniture".

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns name groups consisting of more than one individual or entity. The group is a single unit, but it has more than one member. Examples include "family", "committee", "corporation","faculty", "army", and "school".

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns refer to their ability to register on your five senses. If you can see, hear, smell, taste, or feel the item, it's a concrete noun.
Abstract nouns on the other hand refer to abstract objects such as ideas or concepts, like the nouns "politeness" or "hatefulness".

Possessive Nouns

A possessive noun is a noun that names who or what has something. The possessive form is used with nouns referring to people, groups of people, countries, and animals.
It also refers to where someone works or plays or spends their time.
Add an apostrophe and s ('s) to form the possessive of most singular nouns (ex. Bob's jacket, the cat's tail, Steven King's books).
Add an apostrophe (') to form the possessive of plural nouns that end with s (ex. retailers' stores, soldiers' weapons, Americans' banks).
Add an apostrophe and s ('s) to form the possessive of plural nouns that do not end with s (ex. geese's nest, children's toys, women's dresses).

List of Common Nouns for Various Ages

A account achiever acoustics act action activity actor addition adjustment advertisement advice aftermath afternoon afterthought agreement air airplane airport alarm amount amusement anger angle animal answer ant ants apparatus apparel apple apples appliance approval arch argument arithmetic arm army art attack attempt attention attraction aunt authority	B babies baby back badge bag bait balance ball balloon balls banana band base baseball basin basket basketball bat bath battle bead beam bean bear bears beast bed bedroom beds bee beef beetle beggar beginner behavior belief believe bell bells berry bike bikes bird birds birth birthday bit bite blade blood blow board boat boats body bomb bone book books boot border bottle boundary box boy boys brain brake branch brass bread breakfast breath brick bridge brother brothers brush bubble bucket building bulb bun burn burst bushes business butter button	C cabbage cable cactus cake cakes calculator calendar camera camp can cannon canvas cap caption car card care carpenter carriage cars cart cast cat cats cattle cause cave celery cellar cemetery cent chain chair chairs chalk chance change channel cheese cherries cherry chess chicken chickens children chin church circle clam class clock clocks cloth cloud clouds clover club coach coal coast coat cobweb coil collar color comb comfort committee company comparison competition condition connection control cook copper copy cord cork corn cough country cover cow cows crack cracker crate crayon cream creator creature credit crib crime crook crow crowd crown crush cry cub cup current curtain curve cushion	D dad daughter day death debt decision deer degree design desire desk destruction detail development digestion dime dinner dinosaurs direction dirt discovery discussion disease disgust distance distribution division dock doctor dog dogs doll dolls donkey door downtown drain drawer dress drink driving drop drug drum duck ducks dust	E ear earth earthquake edge education effect egg eggnog eggs elbow end engine error event example exchange existence expansion experience expert eye eyes
F face fact fairies fall family fan fang farm farmer father father faucet fear feast feather feeling feet fiction field fifth fight finger finger fire fireman fish flag flame flavor flesh flight flock floor flower flowers fly fog fold food foot force fork form fowl frame friction friend friends frog frogs front fruit fuel furniture	G alley game garden gate geese ghost giants giraffe girl girls glass glove glue goat gold goldfish good-bye goose government governor grade grain grandfather grandmother grape grass grip ground group growth guide guitar gun	H hair haircut hall hammer hand hands harbor harmony hat hate head health hearing heart heat help hen hill history hobbies hole holiday home honey hook hope horn horse horses hose hospital hot hour house houses humor hydrant	I ice icicle idea impulse income increase industry ink insect instrument insurance interest invention iron island	J jail jam jar jeans jelly jellyfish jewel join joke journey judge juice jump
K kettle key kick kiss kite kitten kittens kitty knee knife knot knowledge	L laborer lace ladybug lake lamp land language laugh lawyer lead leaf learning leather leg legs letter letters lettuce level library lift light limit line linen lip liquid list lizards loaf lock locket look loss love low lumber lunch lunchroom	M machine magic maid mailbox man manager map marble mark market mask mass match meal measure meat meeting memory men metal mice middle milk mind mine minister mint minute mist mitten mom money monkey month moon morning mother motion mountain mouth move muscle music	N nail name nation neck need needle nerve nest net news night noise north nose note notebook number nut	O oatmeal observation ocean offer office oil operation opinion orange oranges order organization ornament oven owl owner
P page pail pain paint pan pancake paper parcel parent park part partner party passenger paste patch payment peace pear pen pencil person pest pet pets pickle picture pie pies pig pigs pin pipe pizzas place plane planes plant plantation plants plastic plate play playground pleasure plot plough pocket point poison police polish pollution popcorn porter position pot potato powder power price print prison process produce profit property prose protest pull pump punishment purpose push	Q quarter quartz queen question quicksand quiet quill quilt quince quiver	R rabbit rabbits rail railway rain rainstorm rake range rat rate ray reaction reading reason receipt recess record regret relation religion representative request respect rest reward rhythm rice riddle rifle ring rings river road robin rock rod roll roof room root rose route rub rule run	S sack sail salt sand scale scarecrow scarf scene scent school science scissors screw sea seashore seat secretary seed selection self sense servant shade shake shame shape sheep sheet shelf ship shirt shock shoe shoes shop show side sidewalk sign silk silver sink sister sisters size skate skin skirt sky slave sleep sleet slip slope smash smell smile smoke snail snails snake snakes sneeze snow soap society sock soda sofa son song songs sort sound soup space spade spark spiders sponge spoon spot spring spy square squirrel stage stamp star start statement station steam steel stem step stew stick sticks stitch stocking stomach stone stop store story stove stranger straw stream street stretch string structure substance sugar suggestion suit summer sun support surprise sweater swim swing system	T table tail talk tank taste tax teaching team teeth temper tendency tent territory test texture theory thing things thought thread thrill throat throne thumb thunder ticket tiger time tin title toad toe toes tomatoes tongue tooth toothbrush toothpaste top touch town toy toys trade trail train trains tramp transport tray treatment tree trees trick trip trouble trousers truck trucks tub turkey turn twig twist
U umbrella uncle underwear unit use	V vacation value van vase vegetable veil vein verse vessel vest view visitor voice volcano volleyball voyage	W walk wall war wash waste watch water wave waves wax way wealth weather week weight wheel whip whistle wilderness wind window wine wing winter wire wish woman women wood wool word work worm wound wren wrench wrist writer writing	Y yak yam yard yarn year yoke	Z zebra zephyr zinc zipper zoo

Present Continuous Tense

I am singing

How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		be		base + ing

Look at these examples:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I	am		speaking	to you.
+	You	are		reading	this.
-	She	is	not	staying	in London.
-	We	are	not	playing	football.
?	Is	he		watching	TV?
?	Are	they		waiting	for John?

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

• action happening now
• action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.
past	present	future
	The action is happening now.

Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...

...the pages are turning.	...the candle is burning.	...the numbers are spinning.

b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.

John is going out with Mary.
past	present	future
	The action is happening around now.

Look at these examples:

• Muriel is learning to drive.
• I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future - if we add a future word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exam next month.
past	present	future
!!!
	A firm plan or programme exists now.	The action is in the future.

Look at these examples:

• We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..
• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
• When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking.

How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple - we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.

Basic rule	Just add -ing to the base verb:
	work	>	working
	play	>	playing
	assist	>	assisting
	see	>	seeing
	be	>	being
Exception 1	If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter: s t o p consonant stressed vowel consonant (vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
	stop	>	stopping
	run	>	running
	begin	>	beginning
	Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed:
	open	>	opening
Exception 2	If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
	lie	>	lying
	die	>	dying
Exception 3	If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:
	come	>	coming
	mistake	>	mistaking

Simple Present Tense

I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject	+	auxiliary verb	+	main verb
		do		base

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.
2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

	subject	auxiliary verb		main verb
+	I, you, we, they			like	coffee.
	He, she, it			likes	coffee.
-	I, you, we, they	do	not	like	coffee.
	He, she, it	does	not	like	coffee.
?	Do	I, you, we, they		like	coffee?
	Does	he, she, it		like	coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

	subject	main verb
+	I	am		French.
	You, we, they	are		French.
	He, she, it	is		French.
-	I	am	not	old.
	You, we, they	are	not	old.
	He, she, it	is	not	old.
?	Am	I		late?
	Are	you, we, they		late?
	Is	he, she, it		late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:

• the action is general
• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
• the action is not only happening now
• the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.
past	present	future
It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

• I live in New York.
• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We meet every Thursday.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense - some of them are general, some of them are now:

Am I right? Tara is not at home. You are happy.
past	present	future
The situation is now.

 

I am not fat. Why are you so beautiful? Ram is tall.
past	present	future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.

List of Adjectives

The list of adjectives is something of wonder. Behold the modest adjective. It can leap tall buildings in a single bound. It makes the average citizen smarter and kinder. It keeps you in the cleanest car on the block. Such potent words should be used wisely. Read on and learn how to use your adjective powers for good.

An adjective's job is to modify a noun or pronoun. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. Be careful how you use adjectives such as interesting, beautiful, great, wonderful, or exciting. Many adjectives like these are overused and add little definition to a sentence. Instead, show your reader or listener what you are talking about by using verbs and nouns creatively. Sprinkle fewer well-chosen adjectives for interest.

Adjectives are often used to describe the degree of modification.

The adjective forms are positive, comparative, and superlative.

This tree is tall. (positive)
That tree is taller. (comparative)
The last tree in the row is the tallest. (superlative)

A handful of adjectives have irregular forms of positive, comparative, and superlative usage.

These include good/better/best, bad/worse/worst, little/less/least, much-many-some/more/most, far/further/furthest.

My lunch was good, hers was better, and yours was the best.

Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. They commonly describe something in terms of nationality, religious affiliation, or culture. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives have their first letter capitalized.

simple present tense

Adjectives

Adjectives describe or give information about nouns or pronouns.
For example:-

The grey dog barked. (The adjective grey describes the noun "dog".)

The good news is that the form of an adjective does not change. It does not matter if the noun being modified is male or female, singular or plural, subject or object.

Some adjectives give us factual information about the noun - age, size colour etc (fact adjectives - can't be argued with). Some adjectives show what somebody thinks about something or somebody - nice, horrid, beautiful etc (opinion adjectives - not everyone may agree).

If you are asked questions with which, whose, what kind, or how many, you need an adjective to be able to answer.

There are different types of adjectives in the English language:

• Numeric: six, one hundred and one
• Quantitative: more, all, some, half, more than enough
• Qualitative: colour, size, smell etc.
• Possessive: my, his, their, your
• Interrogative: which, whose, what
• Demonstrative: this, that, those, these

!Note - The articles a, an, and the and the possessives my, our, your, and their are also adjectives.

Opinion

Adjectives can be used to give your opinion about something.
good, pretty, right, wrong, funny, light, happy, sad, full, soft, hard etc.
For example:
He was a silly boy.

Size

Adjectives can be used to describe size.
big, small, little, long, tall, short, same as, etc.
For example:

• "The big man." or "The big woman".

Age

Adjectives can be used to describe age.
For example:

• "He was an old man." or "She was an old woman."

Shape

Adjectives can be used to describe shape.
round, circular, triangular, rectangular, square, oval, etc.
For example:

• "It was a square box." or "They were square boxes."

Colour

Adjectives can be used to describe colour.
blue, red, green, brown, yellow, black, white, etc.
For example:

• "The blue bag." or "The blue bags".

Origin

Adjectives can be used to describe origin.
For example:-

• "It was a German flag." or "They were German flags."

Material

Adjectives can be used to identify the material something is made of.

• "A wooden cupboard." or "Wooden cupboards."

!Note - In English we often use a noun as an adjective. For example: glass - a glass vase / metal - a metal tray etc.

Distance

Adjectives can be used to describe distance.   l -- o -- n -- g  / short

long, short, far, around, start, high, low, etc.

For example:

• "She went for a long walk." or "She went for lots of long walks."

Temperature

Adjectives can be used to describe temperature.

cold, warm, hot, cool, etc.

For example:

• "The day was hot." or "The days were hot."

Time

Adjectives can be used to describe time.

late, early, bed, nap, dinner, lunch, day, morning, night, etc.

For example:

• "She had an early start."

Purpose

Adjectives can be used to describe purpose. (These adjectives often end with "-ing".)
For example:

• "She gave them a sleeping bag." or "She gave them sleeping bags."

!Note - In each case the adjective stays the same, whether it is describing a masculine, feminine, singular or plural noun.
When using more than one adjective to modify a noun, the adjectives may be separated by a conjunction (and) or by commas (,).
For example:

• "Her hair was long and blonde." or "She had long, blonde hair."

More examples:

Adjective	Pretty	Serious	Fast	Quiet
Example	She was a pretty girl.	He was a serious boy.	It was a fast car.	They were quiet children.

!Note - Adjectives that go immediately before the noun are called attributive adjectives.
Adjectives can also be used after some verbs. They do not describe the verb, adverbs do that. Adjectives after a verb describe the subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun). They are called predicative adjectives.
For example:

• "David looks tired." The subject (in this case David) is being described as tired not the verb to look.

Adverbs 

Adverbs can tell you where, when, how, why and to what extent something happens.

There are several different classes of adverb (see above).
They are often formed from adjectives or nouns be adding the suffix -ly.

For example: Quick becomes quickly, sudden becomes suddenly, intelligent becomes intelligently.

To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -y change the y to i before adding the -ly.

For example: angry becomes angrily, busy becomes busily.

To form an adverb from adjectives ending in -e drop the -e before adding the -ly.

For example: feeble becomes feebly, true becomes truly.

Some adjectives ending in -ly need no changes.

For example: heavenly.

However there are exceptions.
For example: sly becomes slyly, shy becomes shyly.
Some adverbs do not end in -ly.
For example: fast, hard, straight.

For example: fast, hard, straight.

Adjective	Pretty	Serious	Fast	Quiet
Example	She was a pretty girl.	He was a serious boy.	It was a fast car.	They were quiet children.
Adverb	Prettily	Seriously	Fast	Quietly
Example	The bird sang prettily.	The policeman spoke seriously.	Schumacher drives fast.	The woman spoke quietly.

Adverbs can modify adjectives

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective.
For example:-
That's really nice.

Adverbs can modify adverbs

Some adverbs can modify others. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it is modifying.
For example:-
She did it really well.

Adverbs can modify nouns

Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.
For example:-
The concert tomorrow.
The room upstairs.

Adverbs can modify noun phrases

Some adverbs of degree such as quite, rather, so, such ... can modify noun phrases.
For example:-
We had quite a good time.
They're such good friends.

Adverbs can modify determiners, numerals and pronouns

Adverbs such as almost, nearly, hardly, about, etc., can be used:
For example:-
Nearly everyone, who was invited, came to the party.

Adverbs can modify sentences

Some adverbs modify a whole sentence, not just a part of one.
For example:-
Luckily the car stopped in time. In this sentence luckily modifies the whole sentence, it shows that it was good luck that the car stopped in time.

Improve Your Reading Skills

Make a habit of reading regularly. Read as many English books, newspapers and magazines as you can get your hands on. 

Reading should be fun, so make sure the texts you choose are not too too difficult for you. If the book or article you are reading is a chore, then find something easier. Try reading graded books written especially for ESL learners. I've written a guide on how to choose a book here.

Find an author you like and read all their books. By doing this you will get used to the style of a particular author and the typical vocabulary and grammar they use. As you read more of his/her books you will find it easier and easier.

If you have a local library find out if they stock English books or if they have bilingual editions of English classics. Or ask them to stock English translations of books you are already familiar with. 

Try reading things more than once. Read something and then read it again a few weeks/months later. You should find your understanding has improved.

Try to discuss a book you've enjoyed with other people. You can even discuss books with me on the forum, or there are lots of online book clubs and you can even write reviews on book selling sites.
Don't try to read "the classics". Save them for later, start with contemporary short stories. And don't forget, there are loads of excellent comics out there too. I actually started learning German by reading Winnie the Pooh!

!Learning Tip - don't try to understand every word. Try to understand the overall meaning of a sentence or passage. 

!Learning Tip - don't translate - only use a dictionary if a word keeps appearing in a text and you still don't understand it.

!Learning Tip - don't just read a book and then forget about it - try to analyse it. You can use this reading log to help you.

Finding Subjects and Verbs

NOTE: We will use the convention of a thin underline for subjects and a thick underline for verbs.
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of agreement.

Example:

The list of items is/are on the desk.

Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas and semicolons as you will see later.

Definition. A Verb is a word that shows action (runs, hits, slides) or state of being (is, are, was, were, am, and so on).

Examples:

He ran around the block. You are my friend.

Rule 1. If a verb follows to, it is called an infinitive phrase and is not the main verb. You will find the main verb either before or after the infinitive phrase. Examples: I like to walk. The efforts to get her elected succeeded.

Definition. A Subject is the noun or pronoun that performs the verb.

Example:

The woman hurried. Woman is the subject.

Rule 2. A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. Example: A bouquet of yellow roses will lend color and fragrance to the room.

Rule 3. To find the subject and verb, always find the verb first. Then ask who or what performed the verb. Examples: The jet engine passed inspection. Passed is the verb. Who or what passed? The engine, so engine is the subject. If you included the word jet as the subject, lightning will not strike you. Technically, jet is an adjective here and is part of what is known as the complete subject. From the ceiling hung the chandelier. The verb is hung. Now, if you think ceiling is the subject, slow down. Ask who or what hung. The answer is chandelier, not ceiling. Therefore, chandelier is the subject.

Rule 4. Any request or command such as "Stop!" or "Walk quickly." has the understood subject you because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the answer must be you. Example: (You) Please bring me some coffee. Bring is the verb. Who is to do the bringing? You understood.

Rule 5.	Sentences often have more than one subject, more than one verb, or pairs of subjects and verbs.
	Examples:	I like cake and he likes ice cream. Two pairs of subjects and verbs
		He and I like cake. Two subjects and one verb
		She lifts weights and jogs daily. One subject and two verbs

An = a, e, i, o, u

A = b, c, d, ....

	This is an apple.
	This is a banana.
	This is a coat.
	This is a dress.
	This is an egg.
	This is an ice cream.
	This is an orange.
	This is an umbrella.

Commas Rule 1. To avoid confusion, use commas to separate words and word groups with a series of three or more. Example: My $10 million estate is to be split among my husband, daughter, son, and nephew. Omitting the comma after son would indicate that the son and nephew would have to split one-third of the estate. Rule 2. Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the word and can be inserted between them. Examples: He is a strong, healthy man. We stayed at an expensive summer resort. You would not say expensive and summer resort, so no comma. Rule 3. Use a comma when an -ly adjective is used with other adjectives. NOTE: To test whether an -ly word is an adjective, see if it can be used alone with the noun. If it can, use the comma. Examples: Felix was a lonely, young boy. I get headaches in brightly lit rooms. Brightly is not an adjective because it cannot be used alone with rooms; therefore, no comma is used between brightly and lit. Rule 4. Use commas before or surrounding the name or title of a person directly addressed. Examples: Will you, Aisha, do that assignment for me? Yes, Doctor, I will. NOTE: Capitalize a title when directly addressing someone. Rule 5a. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and after the year. Example: Kathleen met her husband on December 5, 2003, in Mill Valley, California. Rule 5b. If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma. Example: They met in December 2003 in Mill Valley. Rule 6. Use a comma to separate the city from the state and after the state in a document. If you use the two-letter capitalized form of a state in a document, you do not need a comma after the state. NOTE: With addresses on envelopes mailed via the post office, do not use any punctuation. Example: I lived in San Francisco, California, for 20 years. I lived in San Francisco, CA for 20 years. Rule 7. Use commas to surround degrees or titles used with names. Commas are no longer required around Jr. and Sr. Commas never set off II, III, and so forth. Example: Al Mooney, M.D., knew Sam Sunny Jr. and Charles Starr III. Rule 8. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt sentence flow. Example: I am, as you have probably noticed, very nervous about this. Rule 9. When starting a sentence with a weak clause, use a comma after it. Conversely, do not use a comma when the sentence starts with a strong clause followed by a weak clause. Examples: If you are not sure about this, let me know now. Let me know now if you are not sure about this. Rule 10. Use a comma after phrases of more than three words that begin a sentence. If the phrase has fewer than three words, the comma is optional. Examples: To apply for this job, you must have previous experience. On February 14 many couples give each other candy or flowers. OR On February 14, many couples give each other candy or flowers. Rule 11. If something or someone is sufficiently identified, the description following it is considered nonessential and should be surrounded by commas. Examples: Freddy, who has a limp, was in an auto accident. Freddy is named, so the description is not essential. The boy who has a limp was in an auto accident. We do not know which boy is being referred to without further description; therefore, no commas are used. Rule 12. Use a comma to separate two strong clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction--and, or, but, for, nor. You can omit the comma if the clauses are both short. Examples: I have painted the entire house, but he is still working on sanding the doors. I paint and he writes. Rule 13. Use the comma to separate two sentences if it will help avoid confusion. Example: I chose the colors red and green, and blue was his first choice. Rule 14. A comma splice is an error caused by joining two strong clauses with only a comma instead of separating the clauses with a conjunction, a semicolon, or a period. A run-on sentence, which is incorrect, is created by joining two strong clauses without any punctuation. Incorrect: Time flies when we are having fun, we are always having fun. (Comma splice) Time flies when we are having fun we are always having fun. (Run-on sentence) Correct: Time flies when we are having fun; we are always having fun. OR Time flies when we are having fun, and we are always having fun. (Comma is optional because both strong clauses are short.) OR Time flies when we are having fun. We are always having fun. Rule 15. If the subject does not appear in front of the second verb, do not use a comma. Example: He thought quickly but still did not answer correctly. Rule 16. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations shorter than three lines. Examples: He actually said, "I do not care." "Why," I asked, "do you always forget to do it?" Rule 17. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question. Example: I can go, can't I? Rule 18. Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. Example: That is my money, not yours. Rule 19. Use a comma when beginning sentences with introductory words such as well, now, or yes. Examples: Yes, I do need that report. Well, I never thought I'd live to see the day . . . Rule 20. Use commas surrounding words such as therefore and however when they are used as interrupters. Examples: I would, therefore, like a response. I would be happy, however, to volunteer for the Red Cross. Rule 21. Use either a comma or a semicolon before introductory words such as namely, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., or for instance when they are followed by a series of items. Use a comma after the introductory word. Examples: You may be required to bring many items, e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. OR You may be required to bring many items; e.g., sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing. NOTE: i.e. means that is; e.g. means for example Spelling, Vocabulary, and Confusing Words a vs. an Rule. Use a when the first letter of the word following has the sound of a consonant. Keep in mind that some vowels sound like consonants when they’re sounded out as individual letters. Examples: a finger a hotel a U-turn (pronounced You-turn) a HUD program a NASA study Rule. Use an when the first letter of the word following has the sound of a vowel. Remember that some consonants sound like vowels when they’re spoken as individual letters. Examples: an FBI case (F is pronounced ef here) an honor (H is silent here) an unusual idea an HMO plan (H is pronounced aitch here) an NAACP convention (N is pronounced en here) Deciding whether to use a or an before abbreviations can be tricky. The abbreviation for Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) causes confusion because it can be pronounced as a word (fak), or one letter at a time (F-A-Q). Using the guidelines above, one would say a FAQ when it is pronounced as one word, and an FAQ when it is pronounced one letter at a time. accept except to agree; to receive but, with the exception that ad add advertisement to perform addition ades aides AIDS aids fruit drinks people who help; assistants acronym for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome helps, assists adverse averse unfortunate; strongly opposed (refers to things, not people) Examples: an adverse reaction to the medication                 adverse weather conditions having repugnance (refers to people) Example: He is averse to a military draft. advice (noun) advise (verb) recommendation the act of giving a recommendation affect vs. effect Rule 1. Use effect when you mean bring about or brought about, cause or caused. Example: He effected a commotion in the crowd.   Meaning: He caused a commotion in the crowd. Rule 2. Use effect when you mean result.  Example: What effect did that speech have? Rule 3. Also use effect whenever any of these words precede it: a, an, any, the, take, into, no. These words may be separated from effect by an adjective.   Examples:  That book had a long-lasting effect on my thinking.                    Has the medicine produced any noticeable effects? Rule 4. Use the verb affect when you mean to influence rather than to cause.  Example: How do the budget cuts affect your staffing? Rule 5. Affect is used as a noun to mean emotional expression. Example: She showed little affect when told she had won the lottery. ail ale to be ill; to cause pain or distress malt beverage more bitter than beer air err heir what we breathe make a mistake one who inherits something aisle I’ll isle passageway contraction for I will a small island all awl entire, everything a tool allot a lot to parcel out always two words meaning many allowed aloud gave permission to said out loud; spoken all ready already means all are ready Example: We are all ready to go. refers to time Example: Is it summer already? all together altogether refers to a group; all of us or all of them together Example: It is wonderful to be all together to celebrate your birthday. entirely Example: It is not altogether his fault. altar alter pedestal, usually religious Example: They exchanged wedding vows at the altar of the church. to modify Example: Please don't alter your plans until we have the final schedule approved. allude elude illude to refer indirectly Example: He alluded to his past as a spy. avoid capture Example: The fugitive eluded the police for a month. mislead Example: He illuded her about his age. allusion illusion an indirect mention of something false perception ambiguous ambivalent to have more than one meaning Example: The law was ambiguous. to have mixed feelings Example: She is ambivalent about her wedding dress. amicable amiable friendly (refers to things, not people) friendly (refers to people) Example: The amiable couple had an amicable divorce. among between involves three or more Example: Who among us has not lied? involves just two Example: She couldn’t decide between Chinese and Thai food. amount number used for things not countable Example: We couldn't handle that amount of ill will. used for things that can be counted Example: The number of accidents increased by ten percent. ant aunt a bug the sister of a parent ante auntie a bet placed before playing affectionate term for a parent’s sister anxious eager to have anxiety or worry Example: She is anxious about taking the test. excited Example: She is eager to get a puppy. any more anymore something additional or further Example: It didn’t rain any more this year than last year. any longer, nowadays Example: Harry doesn’t travel anymore. appraise apprise to put a value on something to notify arc ark arch, crescent, half moon a vessel or a refuge ascent (noun) assent (noun or verb) consent movement upward enthusiastic agreement; to agree agreement assistance (noun) assistants (noun) help people who help assumption presumption an idea not based on evidence an idea based on evidence assure ensure insure to promise or say with confidence to make sure something will/won't happen to issue an insurance policy ate eight past tense of eat the number after seven aural oral having to do with hearing having to do with the mouth averse (see adverse) awed odd in a state of amazement unusual; opposite of even when referring to numbers aye eye I yes organ one sees with pronoun bald bawled having no hair cried ball bawl a sphere to cry or wail loudly band banned a group, sometimes a group of musicians forbidden bare bear naked, unconcealed, plain the animal base bass the bottom; vulgar; headquarters (singular) low vocal or instrumental range (pronounced like lace); a type of fish (pronounced like lass) based baste be dependent or supported to moisten; to criticize or lash out at bases (noun, verb) basis (noun) headquarters (plural of base); builds on foundation; belief be bee to exist or live insect beach beech sandy area with water type of tree with smooth, gray bark beat beet to strike violently; to flutter or flap; to pound as with a drum; to defeat; to stir vigorously a plant with a fleshy red or white root beau bough (noun) bow (noun) bow (noun, verb) boyfriend (pronounced like owe) branch of a tree (pronounced like cow) part of a set with arrows (pronounced like owe) boat front, a male's form of curtsy, bending at the waist; comply (pronounced like cow) because vs. since Rule. Because and since can be used almost interchangeably although because always indicates cause and effect and since is used for a relationship or time. Example: Since I have some extra money, I will buy shoes. (not cause and effect) Example: I will go to the game because my daughter is on the team. (cause and effect) Example: I have wanted to talk to you since yesterday. (time) been bin form of be used with has or have container bell belle chime or alarm; a signal beautiful or charming woman berth birth a boat dock; bedroom or bed being born; beginning better bettor of higher quality someone who places bets between (see among) biannual biennial semiannual twice a year every two years twice a year (same as biannual) bite byte to use one’s teeth to tear food computer term for eight bits of information billed build charged a fee construct blew blue past tense of blow the color bloc block a group united for a particular purpose city street; a cube-shaped object boar bore male pig someone or something not interesting board bored piece of wood; a group of people uninterested boarder border someone who pays for room and food perimeter; boundary bode bowed predict bent (pronounced like owed) bold bowled daring to have gone bowling; knocked over bolder boulder more daring a large rock boos booze sounds made by disapproving audience alcohol bough (see beau) bow (see beau) boy buoy male child a naval beacon or marker brake break stop separate into pieces bread bred a food; slang for money past tense of breed; raised brewed brood (verb, noun) fermented mull over; a cluster or family brews bruise ferments a black-and-blue mark, contusion bridal bridle relating to brides a harness, usually for a horse bring take you bring something towards you take something away broach brooch to raise a topic a bauble; a piece of jewelry brows browse the hairs in the arch above the eyes search for, peruse but butt (noun/verb) except bottom; joke object; to ram buy by bye purchase, acquire near, next to short for goodbye cache cash hidden stash money calendar colander chart of days and months sieve to drain off liquids can may able to permission to cannon canon large, mounted gun rule, commandment canvas canvass awning cloth, tarp to poll; a poll capital capitol assets; essential; main city statehouse carat caret carrot karat unit of weight in gemstones a proofreading mark to show insertion (^) edible root a unit for measuring the fineness of gold cast (noun, verb) caste group of actors; to throw a social class, a rigid system of social distinctions cay key quay a small, low island (also spelled key) a small, low island; instrument for opening locks (pronounced key) wharf, dock, pier cede seed to surrender reproductive germ cell sell prison room; basic structural unit of an organism to exchange for money censor (verb, noun) censure sensor disallow; person who disallows Example: The soldier's letters were censored before mailing. to disapprove of; criticize strongly Example: The children were censured by the principal. a device that measures heat, light, etc. and transmits a signal to a control or measuring instrument cent scent sent a penny a smell, aroma transmitted cereal serial breakfast food a series or array chance chants accident(al) chorus, melody chased chaste went after pure, virginal chews choose how one eats food with teeth to pick childish childlike immature innocent Chile chili chilly a country in South America a type of pepper; a dish with peppers in it cold, brisk choral (adj.) chorale (noun) coral (noun, adj.) corral (noun, verb) having to do with a chorus or a choir Example: My choral group meets on Wednesday evenings. a hymn; a group of singers specializing in church music material that makes up reefs; orange color a horse pen; to confine chord cord cored three or more musical tones sounded simultaneously; line segment joining two points on a curve a rope or strand of flexible material removed the center of something chute shoot (verb, noun) an inclined shaft to discharge from a weapon; a stem cite sight site to assert; to quote from; to subpoena vision, the power to see a location or position classic classical important; fundamental having to do with Greek or Roman antiquity; pertaining to eighteenth-to nineteenth-century music clause claws in grammar, a group of words containing a subject and verb; part of a contract an animal’s nails click clique a sound a group climactic climatic having to do with the climax having to do with the climate close (verb, adjective) clothes to shut (pronounced like rose); nearby (pronounced like dose) apparel coarse course rough, lacking in fineness of texture; crude a class; a path colander (see calendar) colonel kernel an officer in the military a seed complement compliment completing part of an order praise confidant confident someone confided in certain, sure connote denote to suggest, imply Example: A growling dog connotes danger. to be a sign of Example: Certain clouds denote rain on the way. consent (see assent) continual continuous repeated but with breaks in between; chronic Example: The continual problem of our car not starting forced us to sell it. without interruption in an unbroken stream of time or space Example: The continuous dripping of the faucet drove me crazy. core corps corpse center or crucial part trained group dead body cosign cosine to sign along with a trigonometry term council counsel (verb, noun) a group of people meeting for a purpose advise; advice, an attorney creak creek a sound a stream crews cruise many groups a trip or vacation by sea criteria criterion plural of criterion a standard for evaluating or testing something cue queue a hint; a stimulus a line of people waiting currant current type of small berry up to date curser cursor someone who swears or wishes misfortune on another a blinking symbol indicating position on a computer screen dam damn a barrier obstructing the flow of liquid a swear word or curse dammed damned blocked from flowing doomed days daze twenty-four-hour periods of time to stun or overwhelm dear deer affectionate term the animal denote (see connote) desert (noun, verb) dessert a desolate area; to abandon extra s for sugary treat desperate disparate lost all hope, in despair entirely dissimilar device (noun) devise (verb) an invention to invent dew do due condensation in the morning to take action owed by a certain date die dye to cease to live; the singular of dice to stain or color using an agent different from vs. different than vs. differently than Rule. Use different from not different than. Example: The weather was different from what we expected. You may use differently than when a clause precedes and follows the expression. Example: He works differently than she does. discreet discrete careful, confidential individual, distinct discussed disgust talked over repulsion does does female deer (plural) (pronounced like hose) a form of to do (pronounced like fuzz) doughs doze unbaked loaves of bread to sleep dual duel two-fold fight eager (see anxious) effect (see affect) e.g. i.e. for example Example: My living expenses have increased, e.g., rent, food, and utilities. that is, in other words Example: My living expenses have drained my finances, i.e., I have less money in the bank at the end of every month. eight (see ate) elicit illicit evoke, extract, draw out illegal elude (see allude) elusive illusive difficult to describe, evasive Example: The point of the novel is elusive to me. plausible or possible; deceptive Example: She had the illusive dream of finding happiness by traveling. (plausible, possible)  Example: She had an illusive idea that she was qualified for the job. (deceptive, delusional) emigrate immigrate to exit one country in order to live in another country to enter a new country to live empathy sympathy to understand another's feelings to feel compassion or sadness for another ensure (see assure) epic epoch saga a period of time, an age err (see air) every day (every, adjective; day, noun) everyday (adjective) each day Example: I learn something new every day. ordinary Example: These are my everyday clothes. except (see accept) eye (see aye) facts fax objective data short for facsimile; technology that sends images by phone faint feint to go unconscious pretense fair (adjective, noun) fare impartial; an exhibition payment or expense for travel fairy ferry imaginary being possessing magical powers type of boat farther refers to physical distance only Example: We had to walk farther than the map indicated. further (adverb, adj.) refers to physical distance like farther; moreover; in addition; to a greater extent Examples: We need to discuss this further.                   Nothing could be further from the truth.                   We had to walk further. further (verb) To help forward, advance, or promote a work, undertaking, cause, etc. Example: Elisa had more desire to further her own interests than to further the mission of the organization. faux foe fake, imitation enemy, opponent faze phase to perturb or fluster a period or situation feat feet an extraordinary act or accomplishment twelve-inch increments; appendages at end of legs feted fetid celebrated, honored noxious, gross fewer less under refers to a number that can be counted Example: Fewer days off. refers to an uncountable amount Example: Less rain, less fear. used for direction Example: Under the mattress, not under $100. find fined discover penalized fir fur type of tree hairy coat of an animal flair flare style erupt flea flee insect to run away flew flu flue past tense of fly, to have moved through the air with wings a virus part of a chimney floe flow sheet of floating ice pour, proceed, spew flour flower grain the bloom of a plant for fore four preposition ahead the number after three forego forgo to go in front of, precede to do without foreword forward introduction to a book written by someone other than the author opposite of backward fort forte a military fortification someone’s strong point, talent forth fourth forward number after third foul fowl offensive, disgusting certain birds frees freeze frieze releases to make cold a decorative band on the wall further (see farther) gait gate a manner of walking or stepping, stride Examples: trotting, galloping, limping barrier gilt guilt gold-covered blame gone went used with has or have Examples: Ella has gone to the store.                   Barry and Ella have gone to the beach. past tense of go Examples: Ella went to the store.                   Barry and Ella went to the beach. gored gourd stabbed with a horn or tusk hard-shelled fruit gorilla guerrilla largest of the apes soldier using surprise raids; irregular tactics graft graphed attach; acquisition of money dishonestly diagrammed grate great a cover or partition of parallel or crossed bars excellent grill grille method of cooking; barbecuing an openwork barrier for a gate groan grown a low, mournful sound of pain or grief to have increased in size guessed guest conjectured, offered an opinion company, honoree guise guys appearance or assumed appearance men hair hare what grows on one’s head and body rabbit hall haul passageway or large room to pull, drag, or lower halve have divide into two to possess hangar hanger shed or shelter for housing airplanes something to hang a garment on in the closet haut/haute hoe high-class, fancy as in haute couture (pronounced oh or oht) flat-bladed gardening tool have vs. of should’ve, could’ve, and would’ve are contractions for should have, could have, and would have. No such wording as should of, could of, would of hay hey dried grass interjection used to call attention heal heel to alleviate or cure back part of the foot; scoundrel healthful healthy something that promotes health Example: Organic food is thought to be healthful. to have good health hear here to listen; to give an official hearing in this spot heard herd listened a flock of animals heir (see air) heroin heroine a narcotic derived from morphine female admired for courage or ability hi high a greeting, informal for hello elevated higher hire more elevated to pay for services him hymn pronoun referring to male person or animal song in praise of religious deity hoard horde stockpile, amass a large group, crowd hoarse horse cracked voice animal hoes hose flat-bladed gardening tools a flexible tube for conveying liquid hole whole an opening entire, complete holy wholly religious entirely, completely hostel hostile boarding house or inexpensive lodging antagonistic hour our sixty minutes possessive pronoun I (see aye) idle idol idyll or idyl not active; unemployed someone admired interlude, breathing space; romance, fairy tale i.e. (see e.g.) I'll (see aisle) illicit (see elicit) illude (see allude) illusion (see allusion) illusive (see elusive) immigrate (see emigrate) imply infer to indicate without being explicit to conclude from evidence in inn preposition; inside small hotel inc. ink abbreviation for incorporated fluid in pens incite insight to prompt to action understanding, comprehension incredible incredulous astonishing Example: Her gymnastic moves were incredible. skeptical Example: Citizens are incredulous about the reason for the increase in the price of gas. ingenious ingenuous clever naive or simple innocence innocents to be without guilt people who are without guilt insure (see assure) irregardless regardless no such word exists in spite of, without regard isle (see aisle) it's its contraction for it is or it has Example: It’s for a good cause. possessive pronoun Example: The cat hurt its paw. jewel joule gem in physics, a unit of work or energy karat (see carat) kernel (see colonel) key (see cay) knead kneed need work with bread dough hit with one’s knee to require knew new past tense of know, to have understood opposite of old knight night a soldier in the Middle Ages period between sunset and sunrise knot not interlacing of cord or rope used to express negation know no understand, comprehend a negative to express dissent knows nose understands part of the body one smells with	This is the dress that I bought.

List of AS...AS Similes

simile	meaning
as alike as two peas in a pod	identical or nearly so
as bald as a coot	completely bald
as big as a bus	very big
as big as an elephant	very big
as black as a sweep	completely black
as black as coal	completely black
as black as pitch	completely black
as blind as a bat	completely blind
as blind as a mole	completely blind
as bold as brass	very bold
as brave as a lion	very brave
as bright as a button	very bright
as bright as a new pin	very bright and shiny
as busy as a beaver	very busy
as busy as a bee	very busy
as busy as a cat on a hot tin roof	very busy
as calm as a millpond	very calm and still
as clear as a bell	very clear
as clean as a whistle	very clean
as clear as crystal	very clear
as clear as mud	not at all clear
as cold as ice	very cold
as common as dirt	very common, rude, vulgar
as cool as a cucumber	cool
as cunning as a fox	cunning
as dead as a doornail	dead
as dead as the dodo	dead, extinct
as deaf as a post	completely deaf
as different as chalk from cheese	very different
as drunk as a lord	completely drunk
as dry as a bone	very dry
as dry as dust	very dry
as dull as dishwater	dull, boring
as easy as A.B.C.	very easy
as easy as apple-pie	very easy
as flat as a pancake	completely flat
as free as a bird	very free to go anywhere
as fresh as a daisy	very fresh
as gentle as a lamb	very gentle
as good as gold	very good and obedient
as happy as a lark	very happy
as hard as nails	very tough in character
as hot as hell	very hot
as hungry as a bear	very hungry
as hungry as a wolf	very hungry
as innocent as a lamb	innocent, not worldly-wise
as large as life	conspicuously present
as light as a feather	very light
as light as air	very light
as mad as a hatter	completely crazy
as mad as a hornet	very angry
as nutty as a fruitcake	completely crazy
as obstinate as a mule	very obstinate, stubborn
as old as the hills	very, very old
as pale as death	very pale or white in the face
as plain as day	very clear
as poor as a church mouse	poverty-stricken
as poor as dirt	poverty-stricken
as proud as a peacock	very proud
as pure as snow	pure and innocent
as pure as the driven snow	pure and innocent
as quick as a wink	very quick(ly)
as quick as lightning	very quick(ly)
as quick as silver	very quick
as quiet as a church mouse	very quiet
as safe as houses	very safe, secure
as scarce as hen's teeth	very, very scarce
as sharp as a razor	very sharp
as sick as a dog	very sick
as sick as a parrot	very sick
as silent as the dead	completely silent
as silent as the grave	completely silent
as slippery as an eel	slippery, evasive, not to be trusted	of a person
as slow as a snail	very slow
as slow as a tortoise	very slow
as smooth as silk	very smooth
as snug as a bug in a rug	in a very comfortable position
as sober as a judge	sober
as solid as a rock	solid
as solid as the ground we stand on	solid
as sound as a bell	very clear
as sour as vinegar	very sour
as steady as a rock	very steady
as stiff as a board	completely stiff
as straight as an arrow	straight
as strong as an ox	very strong
as stubborn as a mule	very stubborn, obstinate
as sturdy as an oak	very strong and solid
as sure as death and taxes	absolutely certain to happen
as tall as a giraffe	very tall
as thin as a rake	very thin
as timid as a rabbit	very timid
as tough as leather	very tough
as tough as nails	very tough
as tough as old boots	very tough
as welcome as a skunk at a lawn party	not welcome at all
as white as a ghost	very pale or white in the face
as white as a sheet	pure white
as white as snow	pure white
as wise as Solomon	very wise
as wise as an owl	very wise

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions	Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so	although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

• Single Word
  for example: and, but, because, although
  
• Compound (often ending with as or that)
  for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
  
• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
  for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
  - Jack and Jill went up the hill.
  - The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.
  
• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause, for example:
  - I went swimming although it was cold.